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The official title for the union of England, Scotland and Wels is Great Britain. Great Britain and Northern Ireland form the United Kingdom and the United Kingdom together with Canada, Australia and New Zealand and some other territories is the British Commonwealth of Nations.

The UK is constitutional monarchy, it means that the official head of state is the monarch, but his or her powers are limited by the constitution. The British constitution is not written in any single document. Britain´s democratic system of government is long established and well tried. The monarchy has been interupted only ones - in 17^th century - and the head of state was Oliver Cromwel.

The Queen is impartial and acts on the advice of her ministers. She has "the right to beconsulted, the right to encourage and the right to warn". One important duty is the choice of Prime Minister, although by convention the monarch chooses the leader of the party with a majority in the House of Commons. She normally sees the Prime Minister each week as well as speaking to other ministers. She also receives copies of important government papers and a summary of debates in Parliament. Some duties are now very ceremonial - for example she opensParliament each year, when she delivers a speech from the throne setting out (vytyčit) her Government´s plans for the coming year. The speech is prepared by the Government.

TheGovernment is formed by the party with majority support in the Commons. The Queen appoints its leader as Prime Minister. The Prime Minister appoints a team of main ministers as the Cabinet (about 20 people). The second largest party forms the official Opposition, with its own leader and "shadow cabinet". The Opposition has a duty to criticise government and to present an alternative programme.
There are 3 main political parties in Britain: the Conservative Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal-Democratic Party.

The supreme law-making body in the country is Parliament which consists of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. British parliamentary system is one of the oldest in the world, it developed slowly during the 13th century after King John's signature of Magna Charta in 1215.

There are 650 elected Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons. General elections to choose MPs must be held at least every 5 years. Voting, which is not compulsory, is by secret ballot and is from the age of 18. The centre of parliamentary power is the House of Commons.

The House of Lords consists of hereditary peers and peersses (šlectici, šlechtičny), the 2 archbishops and 24 most senior bishops - who represent the Curch of England. The House of Lords as a revising chamber should complement (doporučovat) the Commons and not rival it (neoponovat).

The flag of the UK of GB and NI is officially called the Union Flag, but it is commonly known as the Union Jack. The flag is made up of the crosses of the patron saints of England (St George´s red cross on a white field), Ireland (St Patrick´s red diagonals on a white field) and Scotland (St Andrew´s white diagonals on a blue field) and has existed in its present form since 1801. Wales is not represented because when the flag first appeared it was already united with England.

The British national anthem "God Save the Queen" was first performed as "God Save the King" in London in 1745. Only the first verse of the traditional version is usually sung.

Its words are:

God save our gracious Queen! Send her victorious,

Long live our noble Queen! Happy and glorious,

God save the Queen! Long to reign over us,

God save the Queen.

History of Great Britain is very rich. The firs people who came to Great Britain and lived on this islad were settlers from Europe. They arrived between 3,500 B.C and 3,000 B.C. and they introduced (zavedli) farming, pottery (hrnčířství) and stone tools (kamené nástroje). Stonehenge, a huge circle of standing stones, was built by them.

In the 10^th century a group of people called Celts came to Britain. One of thei tribes was named Britons, so when then the Romans came, they named the island Britannia.

The Angles and Saxons came from Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands in the 5^th century and England got the name from this invasion.Then arrived the Vikings from Sakndinavia and the Normans from France who attacked England.

The Battle of Hastings changed the future of England in 1066. The English army was defeated by the French led by William, Duke of Normandy and the English King was killed in this Battle. William became King William I of England, known as William the Conqueror.

One of the most remembered persone in history is King Henry VIII who had six wives. Henry was well educated. He bacame king at the age of 17 when his father Henry VII died of tuberculosis.He ruled as a tru and terrible autocrat. His first wife was The Catherine of Aragon but she couldnt give him a son so he wanted divorce, but the Pope did not want it becouse it was impossible to divorce. Henrys teacher, Sir Thomas More, was executed, because he didnt agree with Henrys second marriage to Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII established a new church - Church of Englad, which was independant on Rome and he bacame a head of this church. (Now it is Queen Elizabeth II) After divorce he married Anne Boleyn. But she gave him a daughter so Henry had her executed. Katrine Howard, his fifth wife, was executed for the same reason.

The first queen became Mary Stuart, the Henry´s VII great-granddaughter. She was catholic and killed many people becouse of their protestant religion. So people started to call her Bloody Mary. Mary Stuart was arrested and then executed.

After Mary Elizabeth I became the queen. She was a protestant as her father Henry VIII. She ruled by the female diplomacy. Many European kings wanted to marry her, but she stayed unmarried. Because of this she was called Virgin Queen. In this times was very famous Francis Drake. He was a pirate and he attacked Spanish ships and stole the gold for England and Elizabeth made him a sir. The first English colony in North Amerika was called Virginia in honour of this Queen. She was the first British monarch who gave the name to an era - the Elizabethan age.

The monarchy was interrupted only ones - in 17^th century. Because the King dismissed Parliament and ruled allone for ten years. Few years after that King Charles I was executed and England became a republic. It was called Commonwealht and the head was Oliver Cromwell. But it wasn't very succesful and after 11 years Charles II (son of Charles I) became a king and England became a monarchy again.

Battle at Trafalgar was between England and French. Because Napoleon wanted to take control of Britain. But Admiral Nelson from England defeated Napoleon. It was the first Napoleon's defeat. The Trafalgar square in London was named after this Admiral's Nelsons victory. There is colum with his statue in the middle of it.

Queen Viktoria became a queen at the age of 18 after her husband died. During her reign the British Empire grew and grew and Britain was the richest and most powerfull country in the world.Indusrty was replacing agliculture, aristocracy lost their power to a new middle class. She had many school buit and children did not have to work in factories. Most men were given the right to vote, but women had to wait until the early 1900s. She was a first monarch who live in Buckingham Palace.

In 1926 the British Commonwealth of Nations was established. It consist of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

London is the capital city of The United Kingdom and is the one of the biggest cities in the world - it occupies an area of 1600 km². Its population is about seven milion.

London is the residence of the monarch, the representatives of the Church of England, government representatives, Parliament, the High Court, etc… London is the centre of cultural, political and social activities. There are also 3 airports in London. The most important is Heathrow which is the largest airport in Europe. London is one of the largest ports, too.

The name London comes from the Romans who occupied Bratain to the 5^th century. They built houses and other buildings and made town next to the River Themes. They called the town Londonium. We can see some of the Romans city wall today, near the Museum of London.

London hasn't always been the capital of England. The first capital city was Winchester. But London has always been the richest city. The kings of England always needed money, so they moved their capital close to London. But they did not want to live in London. It was smelly and dirty and dangerous. So they made their capital at Westminster. At first the city of London and the city of Westminster were separate but slowly they grew together into one city. The main architect were Sir Christopher Wren (St. Pauls Cathedral) and John Nash. In 1665 the Black Plagne killed 100 000 people and in 1666 the Great Fire broke out in a house in Pudding Lane, near London Bridge and destroyed most of the city.

The City of London is also the oldest part of the city and it's not far from the River Thames. There is The Tower of London which was built by William the Conqueror as a royal palace. William the Conqueror had the oldest part, White tower, built after his victory at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Then it was a prison (for example Sir Thomas More, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard were busted here). There was once a royal zoo. It is a museum now; we can see the Crow Jewels there. Tower is famous for its BloodyTower and Beefeaters. One of the Beefeaters has to look after the popular ravens. These Black birds live in the Tower under a special care of the Raven Master. It is said that if the raven leave of die, the British monarchy will fall.

TowerBridge is of the most famous bridges in the city and a typical symbol of London. There are several exhibitions in the two main towers. The bridge can be open in the middle and ships can go througt.

St. Paul's Cathedral it was built by the Christopher Wren after the Fire of London (1666). Christopher Wren was burried in the cathedral crypt. In this Cathedral Prince Charles married Lady Diana Specer.

If we climb 311 steps, we will see the Monument which commemorates the Great Fire of London in 1666.

The City of Westminster is known as the centre of political and administrative life of Great Britain. Here are the Houses of parliament, which are situated on the left bank of the Thames. They were rebuilt in Gothic style on the site of the old Palace Of Westminster - the residence of the kings of England from the middle of the 11th - which was distroyed by fire. In the clock tower of the Houses of Parliament there is Big Ben. It's a bell named after Sir Benjamin Hall, one of the ministers, who was very tall and thick and people called him Big Ben. The tower is 97 metres high.

Opposite of the Houses of Parliament across the river Thames there is London eye also known as Millenium Wheel (kolo tisíciletí), which was opened in year 1999 and it is the biggest wheel in the world. Five countries took the part in this fascinating construstin, including the Czech Republic. Škoda Steel made a part of this wheel.

The official resident of the British Prime minister is in Downing street No.10. It was named after its builder, Sir George Downing.

Whitehall it's the name of a street, where is a lot of government offices. Lots of people come to Whitehaal to see the Changing of the guard (regularly at 11.20)

Many English kings and gueens have been crowded and buried in Westminster Abbey. England's greatest poets artists, statesmen and other famous people are burried in Poet's Corner.

The Queen has her home and office in Buckingham Palace.Queen Victoria was the first monarch who lived here. There is a magnificent (velkolepý) monument, Victoria monument, in front of the palace. When the queen is at home, you can see her Royal Standard flying on the top of Buckingham Palace. At half past eleven most mornings the soldiers Change the guard.

The Globe Theatre is the reconstruction of the original Elizabethan theatre from Shakespeare´s time. The original Globe Theatre was built in the 16^th century and Shakespeare worked, wrote many of his greatest playes right here. The theathre was very popular and for 14 years it was one of the best known theatres in London. There was place for 1600 people. The audience (publikum) could wach the performance from all angles (úhly) around the stage. The theatre had three levels. The richest members of the audience watched the plays from the balcony, the poor part stood below the stage.But the theatre burned down. The new Globe theatre exist today thanks to one man´s dream. The American actor, director and producer discovered the site of Shakespeare´s Globe, when he visited London and he decidet to rebuild it.

Madame Tussauds in London is the world famous wax museum with branches in a number of major cities. There are waxfigures of Kings, Qeens, politicians, stars of films, television and pop and sportsmem.

Piccadilly Circus is very famous square in the heart of London. In the middle of Piccadilly Circus there is a statue of Eros - the God of Love. Many buildings around are decorated with bright neon signs, such as Coca Cola, Panasonic etc.

Trafalgar Square commemorates victory of Admiral Horatio Nelson, who defeated the French and Spanish army in 1805. There is Nelson's Column in the middle and four lions around; it is also famous for its pigeons. There is the National Gallery, too.

There are many parks in London. The biggest one is Hyde Park, which was originally a hunting forest belonging to Henry VIII. In Hyde Park is Speaker´s Corner wher you can speak about everything exept the Queen.

Britain is known as a country of legends, ghost stories and old customs. There are many traditions, holidays and festivals in Great Britain. Some of them are the same like in Czech Republic and some of them are different.

I would like to start with New Year´s Eve which is celebrated on the 31st December. I think, it's the same like in the Czech Republic. People have parties which are conected with dancing and singing - at midnight they sing "Auld Lang Syne". In London lots of peple go to Trafalgar Square, they make fireworks and some enthusiasts (nadšenci) traditionally swim in a fountain.In Scotland people celebrate New Year one day later - on New Year´s Day which on the 1st January. This celebration is called Hogmanay. It is belived that the first who across the treshold (práh) must be a dark man.

On the 14th February comes St. Valentine's Day - it is a lovers´ day. On this day people who are fall in love send Valentine cards to a person who they love. They dont sign the cards so than they guess who has sent them the post card. Women get flowers, chocolate or some jewels. Lots of girls are dressed in red or pink clothes.

In Britain people celebrate Easter, too but a little bit different than in Czech Republic. Comming of Easter is celebrared on Shrove Tuesday (masopustní úterý) which is called Pancake Day. The date depens on the date of Easter Sunday which is variable - from mid-March to mid-April, and fixed according to the moon. Nobody knows exactly why are pancakes connected with this day, but it is said, that people ate leftovers (zbytky) of fat, butter and eggs, because than came a forty-days´ fast (půst) and this food was prohibited (zakázáno). So on this day people eat lots of pancakes and one of the tradicions is runing throught the streets holding a frying pan (pánev na smažení) and tossing the pancake in the air. If they drop the panceke they lose the race. Cildren get chocolate Easter eggs which are opened ant aeten on Easter Sunday. On Good Friday people buy hot cross buns, which are toasted and eaten with butter. Easter Monday is a holiday and many people travel to the seaside or they watch some sports events.

Britain likes to celebrate the end of the winter. The celebrations are connected with dancing which should drive away (odehnat) harmful spirits. On May Day - 1st May - children dance around the Maypole (májka).

The second Sunday in May is Mother´s Day or Mothering Sunday. Children give their mum some small present of flowers. Fathers have their day, too. It's on the third Sunday in May.

The world famous festival is Halloween. Halloween means the eve of All Saints´ Day of All Hallows Day and takes place on 31st October. Like some other American celebrations, its origins lie in both pre-Christian and Christian customs. Although it is a much more important festival in United States than in Britain, it is celebrated by many people in the United Kingdom, too. It is particularly connected with witches and ghosts. At parties people dress up in strange costumes and pretend they are witches. Sometimes the witches have black cats with. Their traditions are that people may play difficult games for fun, such as trying to eat an apple from a bucket of water without using their hands.
In recent years children dressed as pirates and princesses, ghosts and popular heroes knock on doors at Halloween and ask if you would like a "trick" or "treat". They hold bags open to catch the candy or that the neighbours drop in. Sometimes the children sing songs and recite to neighbours for thanks for the candies. However, if you don't give them anything nice - a "treat", the play a "trick" on you, such as making a lot of noise of spilling flour on your front doorstep. But more and more adults celebrate Halloween. They dress up like historical or political figures and go to fancy-dress balls or parties.
But not only wearing the masks is the only tradition. People cut horrible faces in pumpkins and also into other vegetables and put a candle inside, which shines through the eyes and the mouths and maybe also through the nose.
The traditional colours of Halloween are black like ghost and night and orange like the pumpkins.

A legend tell a story about a man named Jack who was so stingy (lakomý) that he was not allowed into heaven when he died. He could not enter hell either because he had played jokes on the devil. As a result, Jack had to walk the earth with his lantern (lucerna) until Judgement Day (soudný den).
Halloween party isn't complete without at least one scary story. Usually one person talks in a low voice while other people sit together on the floor or around a fire.

On 5th November - It's Guy Fawkes Night (Bonfire Night). Guy Fawkes was a member of a group of Catholic which wanted to blow up the Houses of Parliament with gun powder on 5th November in year when the king was going to open Parliament. King James I. was a Protestant and he was very unpopular with Roman Catholic. However Guy Fawkes was discovered, arrested and later hanged. Since then, the British traditionally celebrate this day. Children make a dummy, made of straw and old clothes, which is called Guy and say "money for they Guy". On the night, there are "bonfire parties", they made fireworks and burn the"guy". Some people cook sausages on sticks at the fire. And they sing "Remember, remember, the fifth of November gunpowder treason and plot, we see no reason why gunpowder treason should ever be forgot"

People start to get ready for Christmas in late October or early November. Shopkeepers decorate their shops with lights, trees and other decorations. In the middle of December, most families buy Christmas trees, put them in the corner of the front room and put colourful decorations on them.ost families decorate their houses with brightly - coloured paper, holly and mistletoe.
The Christmas holiday begins on 24 December, it's Christmas Eve. People often stop work early and have a drink together and children leave a long sock or stocking at the end of their bed for Santa Claus. Santa Claus brings present for children during the night. In Britain he is usually called Father Christmas. If the house has a fireplace, the children sometimes leave their socks there, because Father Christmas comes down the chimney and left there presents. People sing Christmas carols, for example Silent night or Jingle Bells, and send Christmas cards to their friend, wishing them "Marry Christmas and Happy New Year"
Next day on 25December is Christmas Day. Children usually wake up very early. They look in their stockings to see what Santa put there for them. After breakfast they open their other presents around the tree. For lunch they have roast turkey and roast potatoes with lots of winter vegetables and then hot mince pies, Christmas cake or a Christmas pudding. At three o'clock many people in Britain turn their televisions on because the Queen says' Happy Christmas' to everyone.

On 26th December - it´s Boxing Day and it is still the custom to give a present of money to the tradesmen - the milkman, the postman, newspapers boys, etc. People usually go to a pantomime on that day. This is a show which is always based on a traditional fairy tale (The Sleeping Beauty, Little Red Riding Hood,..). People of all ages enjoy pantomime, especially children. Boxing Day is also the time to visit friends and relatives.

System of education in Great Britain is different from ours.

Children under 5 years attend Nursery schools. These schools are optional (volitelný). It´s almost the same like in the Czech Republic.

All children between the ages of 5 and 16 must receive full-time education in England and Wales. Boys and girls are taught together in most schools.

At secondary level most pupils - at the age of 11-can go to comprehensive (všeobecné), secondary technical schools or grammar schools. The great majority of children (80%) attend comprehensive schools. Grammar schools are selective (výběrový) - so children must pass an examination (zkouška) to entrance. These schools offer mainly academic education.

Majority of parents send their children to state schools, because these schools are unpaid. But there are independent or private schools, too. They are commonly known as "public" schools. It is for example Eton, Harrow, Rugby etc. These schools are usually very expensive, but they often offer scholarships (stipendium) to gifted children from poor families. Before entering one of these schools, pupils usually attend preparatory schools. Only about 8 per cent of children attend public schools.

Secondary schoolsin Scotland are called public schools. It means that they are open to everyone. Children move from primary to secondary schools at 12, not 11 as in England.

The National Curriculum (osnova) is based on 3 core (hlavní) subjects: English, mathematics and science together with 7 other subjects: history, geography, music, art, physical education, technology and a modern foreign language. It has been done in this way, because earlier many pupils tended to drop important subjects like science, technology and foreign languages and specialize too early.

And in Wales, the Welsh language has to be taught as a forth core subject in Welsh-speaking schools.

At the age of 16 pupils pass the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The compulsory subjects are English, mathematics and science. Than about two thirds (2/3) of pupils leave school and get jobs.

At the age of 18 more ambitious students pass the A-level exam, it's a standard examination for entrance to university. There is new exam called Advanced Supplementary (AS), which enables (umožnit) to increase (zvýšit) the number of subjects studied.

Higher education covers (zaujímá) all post-schools courses above GCSE A level. Britain has 47 universities, including Open University. The Open University uses television, radio, correspondence courses and summer schools and it is often for older students, who couldn't go to university in the past, but it's only part-time and fee-paid. The most famous and the oldest universities in Britain are Oxford and Cambridge, often called the Oxbridge colleges. They were built in the 12^th and 13^th centuries. The Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen were built in the 14^th and 15^th centuries; the other universities were founded in the 19^th and 20^th centuries.

In 1858 the University of Cambridge established UNCLES (the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate). Today are these examinations recognized (uznávané) throughout the world. In CZ they are promoted (podporovaný) by the British Council, which helps with teaching and learning English for foreign students and teachers.

Full-time university first degree courses usually last three or four years (except veterinary and medical courses that last 5 years). The main qualifications are Bachelor of Arts (B. A.), Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) etc. It's usual that for example student of foreign language spends a year in a country where that language is spoken or in industrial location to gen practical experience. Some students continue to study for Masters Degrees (M.A., M.Sc., M.Phil.) and this usually last 1 or 2 years of full-time study. A minority of students go on further for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).

The official name of the state is The United Kingdon of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. There are four countries: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

The capital city of whole Britain is London.

Northern Ireland is very beautiful place. It is a land of mountains, rivers and lakes. Belfast is the capital of NI. There are the problems between Protestants and Catholics, which started several centuries ago, still continue and are more political than religious.

Scotland has become an important center for computer production. There is the official residence of the Queen - Edinburgh and the biggest city in Scotland - Glasgow which is the third biggest city in Britain. Everybody knows the typical clothes of Scottish - the kilt.

Wales is famous for its castles, mountains, beautiful valleys, and its national parks. The capital and the largest city of Wales is Cardiff. Welsh is now spoken as a first language by more than 20 per cent of the population

Great Britain is located between the Atlantic Oceanand theNorth Sea. It´s separated from the continent - from France by theEnglish Channel. Its neighbours are France and Irish Republic, which is not a part of the UK.

Britain forms (tvoří) the biggest part of this counry. Its area is almost 245 000 sq km. It is like a half of France. Ireland including the Irish Republic (Éire) and Northern Ireland (Ulster) is the second largest island.

Other islands are the Isle of Wight, the Isles of Scilly, the Isle of Man, Anglesey, the Hebrides, the Orkneys, the Shetlands and the Channel Island (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney Sark, and others).

Britain has a mild and humid climate. There are not any extremes in temperatures. There are mild winters and not very hot summer. There is a lot of rain during a year and it´s the reason why there is a greener grass than in Central Europe. The weather is changeable and there are a lot of fogs. Climate in the west is warmer and wetter, in the east is a little bit colder and dryer.

British rivers aren't very long, but deep. A lot of them are navigable (splavný), but not very far from the coast. The longest river is the Severn. The second longest river is the Thames. London is built on this river. The Avon is one of the best-known rivers. It flows through Stratford upon Avon, the birthplace of Wiliam Shakespeare. Its name comes from Welsh where "avon" means "river". Some very important ports are situated on these rivers, for example: Liverpool on the Mersey, Glasgow on the Clyde, and Belfast on the River Lagan. Most of canals were built during the industrial revolution in the 19^th century. They were very important for transport.

Lakes in Scotland are called lochs. The best known is Loch Ness. It is famous for the legend about the loch Ness monster, called Nessie. Loch Lomond is large lake near to Glassgow. In England the most attractive lakes are situated in the Lake Districtin north-eastEngland (Lake Windermere) and in the Highlands of Scotland (Loch Lomond, loch Ness). The largest lake in the Britain Isles is Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland.

In Britain there are very few forests, but there are Mooreland. (A moor is a peaty (rašelinový), infartile (neúrodný), and upland area) Mooreland are in northeast and southwest England.

The highest mountain in the Scottish Highlands in the British Isles is Ben Nevis (1343 m). In Wales the highest mountain is Snowdon (1085 m). In England is highest point Scafell Pike (978 m) in the Cumbrian Mountains. Pennines are called the Backbone of England because in the central part of northern England they extend (táhnout se) from Northumberland to Derbyshire.

The populations in the Britain are about 60 million. Britain is divided into counties. England comprises (zahrnovat) 46 counties (hrabství), Wales8 counties and Northern Ireland 6 counties. Scotland is divided into 12 regions and 53 districts. In Britain, we can find the following ethnic groups: English, Scottish, Irish, and Welsh. The majority of people speak English.

Britain is a beautiful country with many interesting places. One of the best known places is definitly Stonehange - a hudge circle of standing stones, which was built by early inhabitans.

Britain is known as the land of castles. There is for example Warwick Castle, which lies in the town of Warwick of Warwickshire. The castle today is a popular tourist attraction famous for its wax figures from Madame Taussand.

And I mustnt forget to mention Alnwick Castle, which is now very famous, because this castle plays home of Harry Potter - his school Hogwarts. Visitors come from all over the world to see where many memorable scenes were shot.

We can say that each person has his/her own style, because people have different attitudes to fashion.

Some are indifferent (lhostejní), what they wear, for example men and old people.

Women are very choosy (vybíravý) and particular (puntičkářský). We like to spend a lot of money on clothes, but women sometimes buy clothes, which are unnecessary and they dress them only ones. Young people like to wear leisure clothes or they imitate their favourite pop star.

Some men are choosy too. They like to spend a lot of money on expensive clothes in elegant shops, but there are some women who buy clothes for their husbands. Some people want to be different from other people. They wear strange clothes. People wear clothes according to their taste, moods or their character.

There is an old saying (přísloví), which may be translated as "Clothes make the man", meaning in other words, that people often judge (posuzovat) a person by the clothes he or she wears. It is very important what people wear. It is not good, but it is true. Nobody can imagine life without clothes.

Wearing clothes is something that makes us different from the animals. And it is also a tradition as old as the human itself.

There are many different colours and materials. It's up to us which colour or masterial we will choose.

Clothing today consists of many parts. We can often have up ten pieces on. Of course, that depends on the weather and mood. Climate we are living in has four different seasons - warm but changeable spring, hot summer, rainy autumm and cold winter. And that means there are seasonal clothes. Of course, you can´t wear winter clothes in summer as well as you can´t use summer clothes for winter. We have 4 different types of clothes.

I will start with spring clothes. As I said the weather in spring is changeable. It can be raining or the sun can shine all day. I like springtime and the first spring days, because it is the first time when you can go home from school or from work without anorak or coat. You know, you can go only in T-shirt. It is great. But there is one thing I have always in my bag - my umbrella. Because you can´t know exactly, what is the weather going to be.

So in spring we usually wear trousers, but you can wear skirt, too but only with nylons because it is not so warm yet. At the beginning of spring we wear warm anorak, but than we can wear only sweatshirt (mikina), blazer (sportovní sako) or light jacket.

In summer it is usually very hot, so you need light and comfortable clothes. Women wear short skirts and tops or dresses. Men usually wear some shorts and a T-shirt or a sweat-shirt (tílko). You need also summer shoes, because it is very uncomfortable to wear trainers (tenisky), it is better to wear "open" shoes like sandals, slippers (pantofle) and some special type of slippers - "flip flops".

In summer you have to have swimsuit. Nowadays there are so many different types: you can have bikini, suit off-the shoulder (bez ramínek), tank suit (jednodílné plavky) or bathing trunks (pánské plavky). And you can choose colour and desind which you like. The swimsuits are very important, because in summer you spend a lot of time on the beach or in the swimming pool. And it is important how you look and feel.

All you need in summer are simple light clothes. And I mustnt forget to mention accessories, because they are very important, too. I dont want to speak about earrings, bracelets (náramky), beads (korále) etc. I mean hats, baseball caps and sunglasses; because these accessories protect us against sunrays (sluneční paprsky).

As the weather changes and it´s getting cold outside, the clothing has to change, too.

In autumm we wear almost the same like in spring, but a little bit warmer.

In winter, you need clothes that can keep you warm and dry even if it snows outside and the air temperature is bellow zero. That means you need coat or anorak to protect you and a warm sweater. You also need warm underwear (spodní prádlo) and some knee-sock (podkolenky). It is also good to have a pair of gloves (rukavice), a cap and a muffler (šála).

The next thing is that you can´t wear the same jumper to the football match and to the theatre. For all these special occasions you need different clothes. When you go to the theatre or just out for dinner you need to dress up (vystrojit se). A well-dressed gentleman should wear a suit and a tie. Ladies wear suit (kostým), skirt and some blouse or nice dress.

We wear many various clothes for many various occasions.

Because of this, clothing could get pretty expensive. Especially if you buy designer outfits. People try hard (usilovně) to look fashionable and stylish designer clothes could help them a lot. But there is, of course, a hook. These shops are pretty expensive and many people can´t afford shopping in this kind of stores. But I thing, that wearing expensive clothes is unimportant. Important is how you feel.

To be fashionable means something different for everybody of us. Fashion isn´t just about modern stylish clothes, it´s also about all kinds of accessories. From sun-glasses to handbags, jewellery to umbrellas, hats to belts ….. And it takes a real feel for the fashion to know how to accessorize (přikrášlit, vybavit doplňky).

I must confest, that I dont like shoping. I go the shop only if I need something. But my wardrobe is full, because I can't throw away anything. So I have there clothes which I inherited from my older sister, and clothes which I wear at the elementary school, because I have almost the same size.

I feel good in jeans, T-shirt or sweat.

I dont have definite style, I like all kinds of clothes. It depends on my mood. Sometimes I want to be sporty, so I wear trousers, T-shirt, trainers and baseball cap. Sometimes I wear skirt and sandals and hanbag and sometimes I wear only natural materials.

My "deviation" (úchylka) is wearing old clothes. I have many things from my mother, but also from grandmother and grandfather. For example bells, ties, neckwear (šály, šátky,..), shoes etc. Because now it is again in the fashion.

I dont like buying clothes, because I am lazy to try it on, but I love buying accessories. I love costume or imitation jewellery (bižuterie).

When I go to some of social events, I wear a dress or black trousers with a blouse.

I don´t have one favourite colour, I like many colours as white, black, blue, yellow, green, purple, red…. Actually I can say that I like almost all colours.

It is important to look good and always have some nice clothes on. Well, today image is everything. The first impression is always vital (zásadní). And nothing helps you to make good impression better than nice and clean clothes. It is really important what you wear, no matter what anybody says. That is why I am trying to be well-dressed in every situation. For me, maybe even more important than how I look is how I feel. The clothes I buy must always be very comfortable. Because you can look amazing (úžasně), but when you feel like you are going to die if you have that sweater on for another two seconds, it makes no sense. Another important thing for me is shoes. They must be comfortable, but they must look good, too. I just love converse. If I had a lot of money, I would buy hundreds of pairs of shoes.

Peníze = zvláštní druh zboží, jehož hlavní funkcí je umožnit průběh směny

Na začátku boje s přírodou vyrobil člověk jen to, co sám spotřeboval.

Jakmile vyrobil více, mohl tento "nadbytek" nabídnout někomu, kdo to také potřeboval.

→ zboží = výrobky pro cizí potřebu a směnu

-v prvobytně pospolné společnosti se používaly pazourky, kůže atd,..

-vzájemné poměry ovšem nebyly objektivní, špatně se měřily

-dlouho se neudržela

- peníze se staly novým zprostředkovatelem směny

Peníze = zvláštní druh zboží, jehož hlavní funkcí je umožnit průběh směny

- Jde o peněžní směnu pomocí naturálií, které byly dostupné (mušle, sůl, dobytek, kožešiny, plátěné šátečky,..) - nevýhody při dovozu (některé podléhaly zkáze), některé nebyly dělitelné → začalo se používat zlato (drahé kovy) a jeho sloučeniny - trvalá hodnota, dělitelnost, snadný přenos…

- Zlato dalo základ pro vytvoření mincí a tvorbu papírových peněz (dříve měly zlaté krytí), důvodem byla i ztráta zlata z oběhu (lidé si jej schovávali)

- Mince doplňují papírové peníze o nižší částky

- Peníze vydává stát a dává jim svoji hodnotu, poskytuje jim státní ochranu

- Grafická úprava vyjadřuje kulturní úroveň

- Množství peněz v oběhu kontroluje Česká národní banka

- Umožňují bezhotovostní směnu

- Vyloučily peníze z oběhu, prevence kriminality - začínají převažovat

- Jedná se o šeky, cestovní šeky, kreditní karty

- Vydává je příslušná komerční banka na požádání proti vkladu

- Peníze jsou nástrojem k průběhu směny, pomáhají časově oddělit výměnu zboží za jiné zboží ( zboží - peníze - zboží)

- Pomocí peněz měříme hodnotu jinak nepoměřitelných věcí (např. židle x svačina)

Dluh = cena směny, která proběhla, ale nebyla zaplacena

= schopnost peněz přenášet hodnotu v čase(cenné papíry, vkladní knížky, akcie, term. vklady)

- Peníze jsou také prostředkem akumulace - dají se shromažďovat, akumulovat ("funkce pokladu")

Peněžní a kapitálový trh v ČR : 1, ČNB 2, Komerční banky

- Jedná se o trh s penězi a kapitálem, kde peníze jsou zvláštním druhem zboží umožňující směnu. Kapitál = peníze vložené do podnikání s cílem, aby se vrátily ve zvětšeném rozsahu (cenou je zisk nebo úrok).

- Samostatná nezávislá organizace peněžního a kapitálového trhu v ČR

- Prezident určuje ředitele a schvaluje jmenování rady

- Úlohy:-Vydává peníze, eviduje a kontroluje jejich množství v oběhu

- Dohlíží nad komerčními bankami ( = bankovní dozor)

- Určuje úrokovou míru - úrokové sazby pro komerční banky

- Eviduje padělky

- V současnosti má na starosti zavádění Eura, včetně úkolů s tím spojených

- Od roku 1989 u nás existuje konkurenční prostředí - kolem 30 bankovních domů (včetně zahraničních: německé, francouzské, americké, britské, belgické,..)

- Úlohy:- Organizují platební styk mezi jednotlivci i firmami (hotovostní i bezhotovostní)

- Pečují o vklady obyvatel

- Vyměňují zahraniční měny (valuty)

- Poskytují půjčky (spotřebitelské úvěry) obyvatelům a úvěry podnikatelům

- Vydávají bankovní peníze

- Mají své pojišťovny, leasing,..

- Jedná se o funkci komerční banky

- Účelem je překonat současný nedostatek peněz podnikatele (úvěr mu pomůže rozvíjet podnikání v začátcích) ; v době, kdy firma nemá dostatek financí

- V poskytnutí úvěru má vždy konečné slovo banka!

Banka určuje:

-komu poskytne úvěr → perspektivním firmám (tzn. Firmám, které mají úspěšnou historii, statisticky prosperují 3-5 let zpět) - to zajistí bance návratnost

- úrokovou sazbu

- jištění - záruka návratnosti (např. nemovitosti do zástavby)

Druhy úvěrů:

· Krátkodobý: - Peníze potřebujeme jen na krátkou dobu

- Nákup sezónních zásob (na zimu), peníze na výplaty zaměstnanců,..

· Dlouhodobý: - Na dobu 3-5 let

- Na výstavbu budov, skladů, na nákup výrobního zařízení, stavební investice,..

1, Ziskovost - Zisková banka má vždy vyšší příjmy než výdaje

2, Likvidita= Schopnost banky na požádání klienta kdykoli vyplatit výši jeho vkladu (Když banky krachovaly, bylo důležité si své peníze vybrat včas)

3, Solventnost= Schopnost banky obstát v konkurenčním prostředí, upevnit svou existenci a zajistit další rozvoj díky kapitálové síle (vydržet slabá období)

Měna = peněžní soustava určitého státu (základem je peněžní jednotka)

- každý stát má svou vlastní měnu, aby mohl řídit a kontrolovat svou ekonomiku ( má přehled, kolik peněz je v oběhu, může regulovat zahraniční obchod,..)

- většina ekonomik je otevřených - potřeba převádět měnu na cizí měnu

Měnový kurz = cena měnové jednotky jedné země vyjádřena v peněžní jednotce jiné země

Kurzovní lístek = soupis kurzů měn nejdůležitějších států k určitému datu - každý den ho vydává ČNB

Valuty = bankovky a mince cizího státu

Devizy = pohledávky znějící na cizí měnu (např. cenné papíry v cizí měně, bezhotovostní peníze) - spojení se zahraničním obchodem

Education is a very important thing in my life and I'm glad that I was born in a country, where every child has a chance to get basic education. Because there are still a lot of countries in the world, where lots of people are illiterate (negramotný). Illiteracy is a big problem particularly in countries of the third world. People can't read, write and count there. But there are more serious problems in these countries like problems with food, drinkable water and some illnesses. These problems are primary than education.

Well educated people can understand difficult situation in the world, they can find a well paid job and they can help the others - for example as a doctor, lawyer, psychiatrist, scientist etc. If someone has only basic education, he or she usually can't get as good job as more educated people.

Now I'd like to tell you something about school system in our country. Pre-school education begins at the age of 3. Children can attend a nursery school. They play together, sing, draw and learn basic thinks like how to tie knot and bow (uvázat uzel a smyčku) or that washing their hands before meals is very important.

At the age of 6 they have to go to school. Our school years start on the first of September and ends on the thirties of June. All children look forward to going to the school, because they don't know what waits there for them. It was similar with me. I had a new bag with ducks - there were Donald Duck and his three nephews. And I had new pen case (penál) and small case (kufřík) with water colours, brush and other things for drawing. I was sitting with my friend from nursery school.

Elementary school lasts 9 years and has 2 degrees (primary and secondary school). Children start elementary school at the age of 6 and leave at the age of 14 or 15. At the primary school children learn Czech language - writing, reading, saying poems, and mathematic, too so they learn counting. At the age of 11 children go to secondary school. It is mostly the same school, but children from villages often have to study in the city. At secondary school children study also biology, geography, physics, chemistry, a foreign language etc. At secondary school I liked physics and I was the only child from my class who got the one. But I don't understand how it is possible, because now I hate it and I have very big problems with physic.

Children in 9th class can find a job or they can continue studying at high school (or middle school, I don't know how to call it, because educational system in our country is different from system in GB or USA). If they want to study further they have to send their applications (přihlášky). They can choose grammar schools which don't have any specialization, students learn everything. These schools are attended by children who are willing (ochotní) to study hard to manage entrance examinations to the university. Than there special schools - like technical, economical, agriculture, music, for health workers, languages etc. Or they can attend training centre (učňovské středisko) or apprentice schools - which prepare young people for practical professions (shop assistant, cook, waiter, bricklayer (zedník), car mechanic or cosmetician or hair-dresser). I chose grammar school, because I didn't know what I wanted to do. I think, many students had the same reason as me.

Students finish their high school studying after passing the school leaving exams. They usually graduate from 4 subjects - two subjects are compulsory (povinný) - it is Czech language and one foreign language and two subject are optional (volitelný). Students can choose the subjects they like.

After passing the leaving exams, students can attend universities or colleges. They can study economics, art, medicine, computers, law... The best university in the CZ is Charles's University in Prague. It was found in 1348 by Charles IV. This study lasts 3 or 5 years and each year consists of two terms. They finish it with defence of their thesis (diplomová práce). They can study more facilities together.

Zdravím lidičky,... Tak jsem si konečně založila vlastní blog

Na úvod bych ráda řekla, že má přezdívka opravdu nemá nic společného s drogami! Všichni se mi na to ptají, tak to raději říkám předem. Ti z vás, co mluví anglicky a nebo ti, co umí použít slovník, mojí přezdívce rozumí

No a teď už první článek: Jelikož je čas maturit, rozhodla jsem se nejprve uveřejnit několik vypracovaných otázek z různých předmětů, snad vám k něčemu budou A když ne letos, tak snad příští rok. Jak se říká: "Někdo září, někdo v září."